Working Draft, Do Not Cite Without Permission For Submission to "The New Paradigm on Disability: Research Issues and Approaches" For Initial Distribution at January 24-25, 2000 Conference Researching the Work Environment: Disability, Employment Policy, and the ADA Peter David Blanck Critical questions are emerging about the composition, quality, and competitiveness of the American work force of the 21st century. These questions include: ? What types of work skills will be needed for American employers to remain competitive in the U.S. and abroad? ? Will our increasingly diversified and aging work force include millions of persons with disabilities? ? What will be the characteristics and qualifications of the work force of persons with disabilities? ? What types of job training, accommodations, and technological supports will be available to that work force? ? How will the public policy changes that have occurred in the last quarter of the 20th century in disability law, education, welfare, and technological reform affect that work force? To address these and related questions, research from multiple disciplines is required of disability-specific and generic employment policies and strategies. This research will need to examine organizations (e.g., corporate cultures of large and small businesses), macro- and micro-economic market trends (e.g., labor market demand and supply issues), employment policies (e.g., national and local, and disability-specific and generic initiatives), and disability antidiscrimination laws (e.g., The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 - "ADA") (Blanck, 2000; Schwochau & Blanck, 2000). In 1998, the Presidential Task Force on Employment of Adults with Disabilities began a related multidisciplinary initiative focusing on the bases of attitudes toward persons with disabilities in employment and other areas central to daily life, such as housing, health care, and transportation (Task Force Report, 1998). One goal of the Presidential Task Force is to increase meaningful employment opportunities for adults with disabilities. In 1999, the Department of Labor continued this inquiry through its report "Futurework: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century," designed to provoke study and dialogue among employers, policy makers, persons with disabilities, and others (Futurework, 1999). Futurework examines the increasing diversification of the American labor force and its relevance to the development of employment opportunities and employers' competitive labor force strategies. The present chapter describes a program of study examining competitive labor force strategies and employment opportunities for the emerging workforce of persons with disabilities. The first part of this chapter discusses the importance of multidisciplinary research in the evaluation and implementation of disability-related and generic employment policies and laws. This research is needed to help refute myths about employment and disability with systematic data. The second part describes several illustrative investigations and their implications for future strategies to enhance research and dialogue about the work force of persons with disabilities. The third part examines some of the research questions and issues unresolved. As is the case with much empirical research, the particular patterns in the studies illustrated to date raise myriad questions. Researching Competitive Employment Strategy and Disability In the past 25 years, disability laws and policies have undergone a dramatic shift from a model of charity and compensation, to medical oversight, and then to civil rights (Blanck, 2000). Existing and proposed employment policies and laws are focused on increasing the labor force participation of qualified persons with disabilities and reducing their dependence on governmental entitlement programs. Federal laws such as the Workforce Investment Act of 1998, the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999, and the ADA, illustrate growing public support for enhancing employment opportunities for working age adults with disabilities and preventing discrimination in the workplace (Blanck, 1999, 2000a; Cook & Burke, J., this volume). Despite these and other initiatives, there is remarkably little definitive evidence that American disability policies and laws alone - that is, without a change in public attitudes - will result in substantial increases in the numbers of persons with disabilities participating in the work force (Blanck, 1998). The primary way to assess whether employment policies and laws are beneficial, or as some have argued harmful, is through systematic assessment of information regarding their influences (Collignon, 1997; Schwochau & Blanck, 2000). To be useful to policy makers, researchers, employers, and persons with disabilities, information must be derived from study of the primary actors affected by the legislation or law-for instance, in employment policy research, of disabled and nondisabled employees and of firms. Undoubtedly, researchers in different fields of study will approach questions from distinct perspectives. Policy makers, persons with disabilities, and employers, however, will gain a more complete picture of the influences of law and policy if contributions to the pool of information represent a variety of research approaches and methods. As discussed in the final part of this chapter, an additional benefit to having research assembled from a number of fields is that differing perspectives, assumptions, priorities, and viewpoints reflected in that research may be brought to the fore as findings are compared and attempts are made to reconcile apparently conflicting conclusions (Dole, 1994; Schwochau & Blanck, 2000). In researching the work environment and disability, there also is a strong relationship between the ethics, the scientific paradigm, and the real-world relevance of the way social science research - qualitative and quantitative - is conducted, analyzed, and reported (Asch, this volume; Mathiowetz, this volume; Rosenthal & Blanck, 1993). For instance, in evaluating the ethical use of human research participants with disabilities, primary issues of consent and safety can be distinguished from more subtle issues of research ethics. Perfectly "safe" research, which puts no participant at risk, may be ethically questionable because of the shortcomings of the design (Blanck et al., 1992). Thus, imagine that a research project is to examine the efficacy of web-based distance learning programs in several large companies. The study hypothesizes that web-based learning improves workers' productivity and functioning more than traditional classroom learning. Assume that the consent and the safety of the workers is not at issue. If it is the case, however, that the web-based programs are not technologically accessible to workers with visual or learning impairments, the research may raise important ethical issues because of the inadequacy of its design (e.g., Newell, this volume). How does the lack of universal applicability of the design in the hypothetical study raise ethical objections to the proposed research? The ethical objections stem in part from the fact that the study is likely to lead to unwarranted and inaccurate conclusions about the impact of web-based learning strategies on productivity and job task learning for workers with and without particular disabilities. Increased attention also may be devoted to considering a variety of issues in the selection and recruitment of human participants with disabilities in social science research (e.g., Asch, this volume). Based on several reviews of the literature, it has been shown that a number of research methods or procedures may be designed to reduce participant volunteer bias. In other words, certain research methods may actually increase the generality or external validity (i.e., the issue of to what other populations, work environments, and measures may the obtained results be applied) (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1975; Webb et al., 1966). Thus, the external validity of research on the costs and benefits of workplace accommodations for workers with and without disabilities may be enhanced substantially by employing research methods that maximize the recruitment and involvement of participants with different disabilities performing various jobs across an array of companies in different labor markets. In sum, researching the evolving work environment of persons with disabilities must involve a variety of disciplines, perspectives, and methods. The studies illustrated in the next part of this chapter have three related goals: 1. Dialogue: To foster dialogue about the hiring, retention, and career development of qualified workers with disabilities; 2. Awareness: To raise awareness about persons with disabilities in terms of their work capabilities, value to employers, and to the American economy; and, 3. Evaluation and Implementation: To enhance the cumulative evaluation and long-term implementation of employment policies and laws by policy makers, employers, and persons with disabilities, including related initiatives in health care and welfare policy. The studies described in the next part illustrate the value of dialogue and research on competitive labor force strategies and employment opportunities for workers with disabilities in: (1) hiring and job training; (2) workplace accommodations; and (3) the use of technology. Additional substantive and methodological issues are identified in the final part of this chapter regarding future research on the work environment of persons with disabilities. Hiring and Job Training for Workers with Disabilities-The Manpower Case Study My colleagues and I have conducted an exploratory case study of Manpower Inc., the nation's largest staffing employer (Blanck & Steele, 1998). Manpower annually provides temporary employment opportunities to almost two million people worldwide, maintaining 2,800 offices in 83 countries. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that between the years 1994 and 2005, temporary employment opportunities will grow by 55 percent (Blanck, 1998). The Manpower study used qualitative methods -- interviews, review of archival documents -- to help generate hypotheses about employment opportunities available to a sample of persons with physical and mental disabilities working for the company. The study focused on the importance of hiring and job training opportunities as labor force strategies that provide a bridge to full-time employment for qualified persons with disabilities. Interviews of Manpower employees with a range of impairments suggest the company's investment in individualized training programs, job skills assessment techniques, and career development strategies have been critical to its success in hiring and retaining workers with disabilities. Through interviews with Manpower management and staff, the study attempted to identify aspects of the company's corporate culture that foster employment opportunities for persons with disabilities. Recurrent themes identified include beliefs that (1) there are no unskilled workers; (2) every individual has job skills and aptitudes that can be measured; and (3) every job may be broken down into essential tasks. These themes identify additional ways in which the staffing industry may support the employment of workers with disabilities. Future study will need to examine the ways in which individualized training and job placement are available, health insurance benefits are provided, and opportunities for career advancement and transition to full-time competitive employment. The Manpower study highlights one important bridge from unemployment to employment for workers with disabilities. According to the Department of Labor's Futurework Report, the growth of technology will spur millions of new workers (with and without disabilities, young and old) to seek alternative work arrangements (Futurework, 1999). The implications of the Manpower report warranting future study may be summarized as follows: 1. Goal: Transition from Unemployment to Employment. In what ways can the staffing industry effectively and promptly transition people with disabilities from unemployment to employment? 2. Goal: Provision of Effective Workplace Accommodation. Consistent with other studies, do the benefits outweigh the costs in effectively accommodating workers with disabilities? 3. Goal: Retaining Qualified Workers. To what extent do individuals with disabilities working in the staffing industry transition from no employment to permanent employment as a result of their temporary job placements? 4. Goal: Choice and Empowerment in Work. To what extent are individuals with disabilities placed in a job or industry in which they expressed an interest, and are job placements consistent with individualized work skills? 5. Goal: Work that Pays. To what extent do staffing industry workers with disabilities remain in the work force from the time of their first job assignment, earning above the minimum wage, either through a series of temporary job assignments or permanent employment? Study of these questions may suggest ways for policy makers, employers, health professionals, and others to expand employment opportunities for individuals with disabilities. Labor Market Opportunities for Workers with Disabilities--Longitudinal Study Since 1990, my colleagues and I have been studying the labor market trends of more than 5,000 persons with mental retardation and related impairments living in Oklahoma (Blanck, 1998). The longitudinal and cross-sectional investigation focuses on changes in the participants' employment and economic positions as indicators of labor market progress. The research examines over time the participants' employment and economic status, their personal and educational backgrounds, developing job capabilities and qualifications, use of job training strategies, and involvement in community, citizenship, and self-advocacy activities. The research methods employed include the use of structured and open-ended surveys, interviews, and general observation techniques (Blanck, 1998). The investigation's core findings may be summarized as follows: 1. Goal: Attaining and Retaining Competitive Employment. From 1990 to 1998, almost half (47 percent) of the participants were engaged in more competitive employment settings, less than half (42 percent) remained in the same type of employment, and somewhat more than one tenth (11 percent) regressed into less integrated employment settings. 2. Goal: Employment of a New Generation of Skilled Workers with Disabilities. Younger relative to older participants, and those individuals with better job skills showed particularly strong gains in employment. These findings are consistent with the growing demand for workers with higher and diversified job skills (Futurework, 1999). 3. Goal: Decrease Unemployment Levels. Relative unemployment levels for all participants declined by 23 percent, dropping from 37 percent in 1990 to 14 percent in 1998. 4. Goal: Meaningful Income Growth. Over time, the gross and earned incomes of the participants rose substantially, with younger participants showing substantial increases in income. Better job skills, greater independence in living, and more involvement in self-advocacy activities related to higher earned income levels. 5. Goal: Meaningful Individual Growth. Over time, participants improved substantially in their job capabilities and qualifications, lived in more integrated settings, became more involved in self-advocacy and citizenship activities, and reported enhanced accessibility to society as defined by the ADA. 6. Avoiding the "Black Hole Effect." Yet, more than three out of four (77 percent) of those participants not employed or employed in non-integrated settings in 1990 remained in those settings in 1998. Study is needed of the employment potential and economic value of the many persons with disabilities who have been relegated to nonintegrated work settings. Though encouraging, the findings suggest a good deal of research lies ahead to understand competitive employment opportunity for workers with serious mental and physical impairments. The gains in competitive employment, income, individual growth, independent living, and ADA awareness in the present study demonstrate the potential for advancement toward the goal of economic independence and integration into society of people with disabilities. Accommodating Workers with Disabilities-The Sears Studies One aspect of competitive employment strategy that has received extensive attention is the economics of workplace accommodations for job applicants and employees with disabilities, particularly in response to ADA implementation (Blanck, 1998). Critics suggest the ADA's accommodation provision creates for persons with disabilities an employment privilege or subsidy and imposes upon employers an affirmative obligation to retain less efficient workers. Others argue the costs of accommodations are high for large employers, who may be held accountable for extensive modifications because of their greater financial resources (Blanck, 1998). The research to date does not support the conclusion that the ADA's accommodation provision is a preferential treatment initiative that forces employers to ignore employee qualifications and economic efficiency. As illustrated by the Manpower case study, companies that are effectively implementing the law demonstrate the competitive ability and "corporate culture" to look beyond minimal legal compliance in ways that enhance their economic bottom lines (Blanck, 1998; Futurework, 1999). The often low direct costs of accommodations for employees with disabilities produces substantial economic benefits in terms of increased work productivity, workplace injury prevention, and reduced workers' compensation costs. In a series of studies at Sears, Roebuck and Co., a company with approximately 300,000 employees, my colleagues and I examined the case records of more than 600 workplace accommodations provided by the company during the years 1978 to 1998 (Blanck, 1996, 1998). The findings show that most accommodations sampled required little or no cost-more than 75 percent required no cost; somewhat less than one quarter cost less than $1,000; and less than 2 percent cost more than $1,000. The average direct cost for accommodations was less than $30. The following lessons may be drawn from the Sears studies, each warranting further study in other organizations and labor market sectors: 1. Goal: Competitive Labor Force Strategy Linked to Corporate Culture. The degree to which Sears and other companies provide workplace accommodations appears to have more to do with their corporate cultures, attitudes, and business strategies than with meeting the ADA's minimal obligations. 2. Goal: Economic Benefits of Workplace Accommodations Outweigh Costs. The indirect cost of not retaining qualified workers is high. The average administrative cost at Sears per employee replacement is $1,800 to $2,400-roughly 40 times the average of the direct costs of workplace accommodations for qualified workers. Sears also provides accommodations that require minor and cost-free workplace adjustments, implemented directly by an employee and his or her supervisor. Sears is realizing positive economic returns on accommodation investments by enabling qualified workers with disabilities to return to or stay in the work force (i.e., thereby responding to market forces), reducing the risk of workplace injury, and lowering worker absenteeism. 3. Goal: Benefits of Technology to Workers Without Disabilities and Workers Who May Become Disabled. Accommodations involving universally designed technology enable employees with and without disabilities to perform jobs productively, cost-effectively, and safely (e.g., reducing the potential for workplace injury) (Blanck, 1994; Futurework, 1999). The costs associated with technologically-based accommodations (e.g., computer voice synthesizers) enabled employees with disabilities to perform essential job functions. Universally designed technologically-based strategies often create a corporate "ripple effect," as applications increase the productivity of employees without disabilities. The direct costs attributed to universally designed accommodations are lower than predicted when their fixed costs are amortized over time. 4. Goal: Reducing Employment Disputes and Costly Litigation. The Sears study examined the formal ADA charges filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) against Sears from 1990 to mid-1995 and informal disability-related disputes raised by employees. The findings show that almost all of the formal charges filed with the EEOC (98 percent) were resolved without resort to extensive trial litigation. More than three quarters (80 percent) of the informal disability-related disputes were resolved through informal dispute processes that enabled employees with disabilities to return to productive work. The findings highlight the competitive advantage associated with effective ADA implementation and compliance. The findings from the Sears studies suggest that many economic and social benefits and costs associated with the labor force strategies involving accommodations remain to be discovered and documented. Studies, such as of Sears and Manpower, illustrate that companies invest large amounts of money in accommodating workers without disabilities in anticipation of a positive economic return. The investments in labor force strategies assist workers through adjustable scheduling of work hours, job sharing arrangements, child care support programs, Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), and flexible health benefit policies. The costs of these workplace strategies are substantially greater than those associated with accommodations for workers with disabilities. Additional study of these programs is required to document their economic returns to employers, such as those resulting from accommodation strategies for workers with disabilities (Futurework, 1999). Unintended Consequences of Technological Innovation in Assistive Technology To illustrate the unanticipated consequences of technological innovation toward workers with disabilities after passage of the ADA, my colleagues and I have conducted a systematic review of economic activity in the assistive technology (AT) market, using data derived from the United States Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) (Blanck & Berven, 1998, 1999). AT was classified as any item, piece of equipment, or product system (i.e., acquired commercially, modified, or customized) that is used to improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities. The investigation examines over time whether patent data may be used as one means of probing the link between ADA implementation and economic activity in the AT market. We hypothesized that AT developers would respond rationally to market forces in seeking patent protection for their inventions. The quest for technology indicators that predict technological innovation trends and economic growth with accuracy has led to the development of a number of patent research methods based in statistics and bibliometrics (i.e., the study of publication-based data, tracking progress in scientific and technological disciplines through citation analysis) (Berven & Blanck, 1998, 1999). A term word search strategy of the patent database, available through WestLaw or LEXIS, was adopted to identify relevant AT patents for use by individuals with mobility, hearing, and visual impairments (Berven & Blanck, 1998). The search strategy was extended to patent disclosures because inventors are required to identify uses or functions for their devices to meet patentability standards. Thus, if an invention is intended for person using a wheelchair, the patent disclosure likely will mention "mobility impairment" or identify aspects of the needs of people with mobility impairments. After the term word searches were conducted, references to federal disability rights legislation were searched (e.g., the ADA, the Rehabilitation Act, the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act, and the Technology Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act). The findings illustrate that disability policy and law implementation may be fostering technological innovation and economic activity in the AT consumer market, unanticipated at the time that the ADA was passed in 1990. As policies and laws expand the market for goods that improve accessibility to society, inventors and manufacturers are responding to meet the needs of consumers with disabilities. At the same time, AT is expanding labor market opportunities for workers with disabilities, particularly as employment growth in America shifts from manufacturing to service jobs (Futurework, 1999). The studies' findings suggest the following: 1. Goal: Stimulate Inventive Activity in AT. AT patents have shown substantial annual increases since 1976, with an emphasis toward enhancing accessibility to work and society for persons with disabilities. From 1990 through mid-1998, for instance, patents citing disability-related issues have increased substantially. 2. Goal: Capture Economic Benefits of Technology. Inventors who cite disability policies and laws are a geographically diverse group, many unaffiliated with large corporations. Patents were granted for a wide range of AT with uses at work and home for consumers with disabilities. The findings suggest that employment policies and laws involving workers with disabilities may be positively affecting the AT consumer market. The emerging marketplace thereby is creating profit-making opportunities for inventors, manufacturers, and employers focused on employment strategies involving workers with disabilities. In addition, the findings generate other vital precepts warranting study regarding the importance of technology to the employment of workers with disabilities: 1. Goal: Importance of Universal Design to High Quality Employment. Research suggests that accessibility most effectively may be built into workplaces, work equipment, and job and career training programs, not added on (Blanck, 1994). As demonstrated by the Sears studies, universal designed accommodations benefit all workers, not just those with disabilities. Universal access to competitive employment is a major goal of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA, 1998). 2. Goal: Enhance Job-Related Skills with Technology. As technology becomes more important to work, accessibility becomes more important. To participate competitively in the workplace of the future, the national information infrastructure must not be inaccessible to the emerging workforce of people with disabilities (e.g., Taylor, 1999). Related study is needed of initiatives such as the High School/High Tech Program, sponsored by the President's Committee on the Employment of Persons with Disabilities, which is a national school-to-work initiative for students with disabilities designed to engage and prepare students with disabilities for employment in technology-based industries (Blanck, 2000b). 3. Goal: Integrate Technology into All Aspects of Life. Technology has the potential to make education, job training, and work vastly more inclusive through individualized curricula, web-based learning, and training innovations. Accessible technology has implications beyond education and work -- for health care reform, web-based medicine will bring doctors to geographically isolated people; for welfare reform, web-based commuting and training will help reduce chronic unemployment and isolation among people with disabilities. Additional dialogue and research are needed on issues regarding technological accessibility and labor force strategies, not only for people with disabilities, but for all underrepresented individuals in society-the poor, and isolated, and the vulnerable. A profound question requiring study underlies these precepts: Will technology help people with disabilities and other underrepresented people attain employment? Or will it further isolate them from the mainstream? Research Questions and Issues Unresolved As is the case with much empirical research, the pattern of findings in the studies illustrated above raise myriad questions and generate new hypotheses warranting study. The findings to date will change in applications of different research models and analyses and in the context of emerging employment policies and laws. It is unlikely that one factor, or force, or phenomenon, explains the pattern of findings regarding research on the workforce of persons with disabilities. It may well be that a combination of economic and policy incentives and disincentives, and of changes in the economy explains why employment trends of the disabled seems to be on the decline in some studies and on the rise in other. To identify possible explanations, and to isolate whether, and the extent to which, the ADA is a contributing factor to the labor force participation of workers with disabilities, several issues need to be addressed in future research. For example, issues related to the possible effects of the ADA and other changes in the economic, legal, and regulatory environment on individuals' labor force participation decisions need to be examined (Cook & Burke, this volume; Schwochau & Blanck, 2000). Although studies investigating the probability of employment or hours (or weeks) worked provides information regarding labor supply determinations, an examination of the probability that an individual was in the labor market (e.g., employed full or part time, in the staffing industry, or actively seeking work for pay) may better inform policymakers as to the ADA's effects on individuals' decisions. Economic theory alone may predict that, to the extent that the ADA increases wages of disabled workers and works to eliminate discrimination in the labor market, the law should increase, all else equal, the incentives of disabled individuals to devote hours to the labor market. For similar reasons, as found in the Oklahoma longitudinal study highlighted above, disabled persons, particularly younger individuals, should have greater incentives to invest in their human capital. The incorporation of those actively seeking work for pay into analyses therefore would allow for an assessment of whether the ADA has had any influence on the number of individuals choosing federal assistance over work. One of the expected benefits of the ADA, and of the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act, is a reduction in disabled individuals' dependence on SSI or DI (e.g., Cook & Burke, this volume; Equal Opportunity for Individuals With Disabilities, Federal Register, 1991). Qualitative and quantitative analysis of labor supply decisions over time also would help to isolate whether changes in nonwork sources of income explain the employment patterns of persons with different disabilities. To the extent that individuals with certain disabilities place importance on access to health care in their decisions regarding labor force participation (e.g., as identified by the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act), changes in the private sector's provision of health care, in regulations regarding health care coverage, and in relevant federal programs all could be considered as explanations for patterns in existing studies. Finally, as illustrated by the Manpower study described above, the effects of changes in the nature of jobs and training available in the economy may be assessed. Nevertheless, one fundamental difference between the principles underlying the ADA and those using economic models used to test the law's effects lies in assumptions made regarding the role of discrimination as an explanation for the employment patterns of individuals with disabilities. Discriminatory assumptions about disabled workers, to the extent they play a role, would be factors used in the analysis instead of, or in addition to, the usual considerations of productivity. As a result, it becomes important to incorporate into future research models measures of individuals' productivity, such as education and work experience. Measures of work productivity, as illustrated by the Sears accommodations studies described above, in turn must include assessments based on the provision of effective accommodations and universally designed technology. Examinations of the probability of employment further need to take into account the sizeable portion of the disabled population whose impairments make effective work possible, if accommodations were to be provided. In addition, in the analysis of either the labor force participation or employment of disabled individuals, it is crucial that research indicators of disability go beyond the use of a single "yes/no" measure (Collignon, 1997). Oi describes how four aspects of disability are likely to be important in individuals' labor supply decisions: severity, age at onset of disability, anticipated duration of disability, and the disability's effect on expected length of life (Oi, 1996). Although information on each of these is not contained in most existing national data sets, some surveys (e.g., the Survey of Income and Program Participation -- SIPP) have asked individuals questions that can provide the basis for a measure of disability severity (Mathiowetz, this volume). Only through controlling for aspects of individuals' disabilities can researchers obtain an estimate of the extent to which the ADA has helped or hindered the efforts of those with disabilities to move into, and to stay in, the workplace (Ferguson, this volume). Finally, a number of exploratory studies, such as the Sears ADA dispute resolution study, have examined the employment of disabled persons using information for years prior to the ADA Title I's effective date. Future studies may tailor empirical models to maximize comparability with earlier research and thereby allow for assessment of changes between pre-ADA and post-ADA periods. In so doing, changes in factors previously found to influence employment of individuals with disabilities may be identified. By themselves, the number of questions and issues that have yet to be addressed suggests the complex nature of researching the work environment (Blanck, 2000a). There is a lot we do not know. Nonetheless, the studies illustrated in this chapter may help in the development of a body of information regarding patterns of employment of disabled and nondisabled individuals. Over time, the present program of study and that of many others will no doubt encourage others to undertake the task of testing empirically predictions regarding the workforce of persons with disabilities. Quantitative and qualitative research, and economic theory -- because it allows us to focus on incentives and disincentives in the labor market -- will assist in making that determination. Caution is warranted, however, that the viewpoints embedded within any research model or method must be acknowledged. Thus, economic theory alone generally would predict that an employer structures the firm's work environment to enable workers, on average, to attain the desired level of productivity (i.e., given the costs and benefits associated with alternative orderings and available technologies and accommodations). If the majority of workers are viewed as unimpaired, the work environment can be expected to build on assumptions that workers have no limitations on their abilities to see, hear, walk, climb stairs, lift, carry, grasp door knobs, write, speak, and so on (Hahn, 1993; Hahn, this volume). Because of employers' incentives to maximize profits, this environment becomes the baseline - the appropriate, efficient manner in which to order work and the work environment given the characteristics the average individual in the relevant labor markets is perceived to have. Accommodations therefore come to represent deviations from an assumed efficient status quo necessitated by the appearance in the candidate pool, or in the current workforce, of individuals with disabilities - individuals whose characteristics differ from those of the "model (able-bodied) worker" around whom the work environment was built. But this is one viewpoint. The assumption that the status quo is efficient in an absolute sense is certainly open to challenge and study, even on a workforce-wide basis (Blanck, 2000a). When the possibility is considered that the environment itself may unnecessarily contribute to making a functional limitation into a disability, the barriers are not unlike artificial requirements that job candidates have a certain diploma. As illustrated by the Sears studies above, where aspects of the work environment may be shown to contribute directly to the bottom line (i.e., are profitable), it can be argued that the fact that accommodations are made is often indicative of an organization's culture and values. It would be short-lived firm indeed that required its employees, while remaining subject to the employer's direction and control, to supply their own desks, computers, cash registers, stamping machines, blast furnaces, telephones, and the like, so that they could each meet the employer's defined level of satisfactory performance on the job (Hahn, 1993; this volume). These contributors to an individual's productivity are normally provided by the employer, and can be seen as part of the overall "package" that an employee accepts when taking a job or as ways in which the firm "accommodates" its employees (Hahn, 1993). That the ADA requires the employer to provide the requisite tools to disabled individuals to perform their jobs can be viewed, therefore, as nothing more than standard practice. In the context of this illustration, an understanding of the empirical assumptions underlying qualitative and quantitative research therefore is necessary not only to put findings into their appropriate context, but also to assess whether the models themselves are appropriate bases for public policy regarding individuals with disabilities. Some Next Steps in Researching the Emerging Workforce of Persons with Disabilities This chapter has stressed that the systematic evaluation of the policies and laws affecting the work force of persons with disabilities is needed for several reasons, including: 1. Goal: Competitive and High Quality Labor Force of the 21st Century. Study of the labor force participation of persons with disabilities will aid in long-term implementation of initiatives designed to enhance the employment of workers with disabilities. This analysis will aid in the assessment of related initiatives that support employment for workers with disabilities in areas such as health care reform (e.g., efforts to ensure affordable health insurance to former Medicaid recipients entering the workforce), welfare reform (e.g., efforts to enhance job skills development), and educational reform (e.g., efforts to ensure that emerging workplace technologies are accessible to people with disabilities). 2. Goal: Understand the Characteristics of the Emerging Work Force. Study is needed of the extent to which implementation of employment policies and laws have coincided with larger numbers of persons with severe disabilities entering the labor force. Additional information is needed on persons with visible and non-visible disabilities, disabilities that are mitigated (e.g., by medication or AT devices), and multiple disabilities. 3. Goal: Assess Existing Challenges. Despite encouraging trends, study is required of the underlying causes of high unemployment levels facing persons with disabilities (e.g., as illustrated by the "Black Hole Effect" in the Oklahoma longitudinal study described above). A 1998 survey by the National Organization on Disability (NOD) and the Louis Harris and Associates Organization found significant participation gaps between people with and without disabilities in employment and other aspects of life (NOD Harris Poll, 1998). Of the persons with severe disabilities surveyed, more than two thirds were unemployed compared to less than 10 percent of all Americans. Forty percent of the individuals with disabilities surveyed lived below the poverty line versus 18 percent of all Americans. Yet, more than half of those individuals with disabilities who were willing and able to work were working either full or part time. 4. Goal: Opportunity for Collaboration. Meaningful discussion among scholarly disciplines is needed to inform policy makers, employers, members of the disability community, and others about the issues related to labor force strategies in ways that articulate the values and goals of the nation's policies affecting persons with disabilities. This dialogue and program of study must include the collaboration and participation of persons with different disabilities (Newell, Campbell, & Seekins, this volume). 5. Goal: Opportunity for Research and Evaluation. The conclusions from any series of studies are insufficient for drawing sweeping conclusions about persons with disabilities and employment policies and laws. Multidisciplinary and multimethod study is required to provide a springboard for discussion. 6. Goal: Opportunity for Enhancement from Research and Evaluation. As persons with disabilities seek, attain, and retain employment, research and evaluation provide a means to assess and document successful employment policies, laws, strategies, and best practices. The identification and targeting of beneficial intervention strategies (e.g., job training, health benefits counseling, and workplace accommodations) is an important task for future study. In this last regard, in 1998 my colleagues and I were awarded a grant from the National Institute on Disability Research and Rehabilitation (NIDRR) to establish a Rehabilitation and Research and Training Center (RRTC) on Work Force Investment and Employment Policy for Persons with Disabilities (Michael Morris, Peter David Blanck, Robert Silverstein, Allen Jensen, & Carl Van Horn, 1999). The RRTC's goals include conducting research on the effects of federal and state policies (e.g., the ADA and the Workforce Investment Act) on the employment of persons with disabilities. The mission is examine the ways in which policy and law may positively impact the range of employment opportunities for Americans with disabilities. Using varying research methods and models, the RTC will study emerging questions about the relationships among federal and state policy, employment and access to health care, civil rights, and services and supports available to the emerging workforce of persons with disabilities. For instance, as states plan their strategies to implement the Workforce Investment Act, research questions such as the following will be examined: How can we measure systematically the long-term impact of civil rights protections for workers with disabilities? What will be the impact between emerging work incentive policy and services that might be available at WIA one-stop centers? What may be learned from studying employers and business cultures that may be applied to the decision making of workforce investment boards? And, is it possible to systematically conceptualize a disability policy framework to aid in the analysis of state efforts to implement the Workforce Investment Act? Another example of a research project underway is study of self-employment and entrepreneurial activities of people with disabilities (Blanck & Schmeling, 2000). Self-employment is examined as an option for joining the workforce, a strategy emphasized in the 1998 Presidential Task Force report and the Workforce Investment Act. The research explores how Iowa's Entrepreneurs with Disabilities program enables individuals with disabilities to pursue self-employment. The report uses in-depth interviews and archival data sources to examine the program. The goal of the research is to stimulate discussion of self-employment techniques and policy initiatives that address the unemployment problem faced by millions of Americans with disabilities who want to work, and who are capable of and interested in self-employment. The preliminary findings illustrate that self-employment, like the staffing industry work experiences documented in the Manpower study, provides an alternative for people with disabilities to move from unemployment, or underemployment, to productive employment. Self-employment initiatives provide assessment, technical assistance, and training for prospective entrepreneurs. The self-employment programs studied provide entrepreneurs with opportunities to establish businesses, acquire startup and expansion funding, build credit histories, enhance their self-esteem, become involved in their communities, interact with suppliers and customers, and earn meaningful incomes. A final illustration of a project underway is the establishment of a Summer 2000 Researchers' Symposium at the University of Iowa to increase understanding and knowledge of best practices and assumptions in qualitative research design and methodology involving persons with disabilities. The Symposium -- planned jointly by Iowa's Law, Health Policy & Disability Center, the RRTC on Work Force Investment and Employment Policy for Persons with Disabilities, other RRTC University Research Partners, and NIDRR staff -- seeks to target researchers with disabilities at a graduate or postgraduate level in the social sciences. The outcomes expected include a proceedings report and new relationships forged between a next generation of researchers with disabilities involved in employment related research. The purpose of the symposium is to help facilitate the developing interdisciplinary dialogue between social scientists with backgrounds in law, sociology, economics, psychology, and education to build a next generation research paradigm on disability study issues such as labor force participation, assistive technology and workplace accommodations, and disability culture and diversity (Mertens & Aranda, this volume). Conclusion Empirical and policy analysis of the kind highlighted in this chapter is necessary to expand and improve dialogue about the developing array of employment opportunities available to Americans with disabilities. The development of a cumulative body of research on the work environment is needed, as no single study or even set of studies may provide definitive answers. An additional benefit to having research assembled from a number of fields is that the differing perspectives, assumptions, priorities and viewpoints reflected in that research can be brought to the fore as results are compared and attempts are made to reconcile apparently conflicting conclusions. At bottom, useful and credible information about these issues must be derived from study of our nation's values related to the sense of individual worth, fairness, and economic common sense (Blanck, 2000b, 2000c). The articulation of these values by persons with and without disabilities will shape the lives of the next generation of children with disabilities who have experienced integrated education and who will become part of the competitive labor force of the 21st century. Peter David Blanck -- Professor of Law, of Psychology, & of Occupational Medicine at The University of Iowa, and Director of the Law, Health Policy & Disability Center -- earned his Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard University and his J.D. from Stanford Law School. He serves as a member of the President's Committee on the Employment of People with Disabilities. The program of research described herein is supported, in part, by grants from The University of Iowa College of Law Foundation; the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, the U.S. Department of Education; and The Great Plains Disability and Business Technical Assistance Center. Thanks to my colleagues who provided helpful comments of earlier versions of this chapter: Michael Morris and Helen Schartz. An earlier version of this chapter was prepared for a special issue of American Rehabilitation, "Competitive Labor Force Strategy and High Quality Employment: Disability, Employment Policy, and the ADA" (forthcoming, 2000). Bibliography The American with Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. 12101 et. seq. Asch, A. (2000). Moral and Ethical Issues in Disability Research, this volume. Berven, H.M. Blanck, P.D. (1998). The Economics of the Americans with Disabilities Act: Part II: Patents, Innovations and Assistive Technology. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics & Public Policy, 12 (1), 9-120. Berven, H.M. Blanck, P.D. (1999). Assistive Technology Patenting Trends and the Americans with Disabilities Act, Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 17(1), 47-71. Blanck, P.D. (1994). Communications Technology for Everyone: Implications for the Classroom and Beyond, The Annenberg Washington Program, Washington, D.C. [Accessible CD Rom Version, 1995]. Blanck, P.D. (1994). Communicating the Americans with Disabilities Act, Transcending Compliance: A Case Report on Sears, Roebuck & Co., The Annenberg Washington Program, Washington, D.C. Blanck, P.D. (1996). Transcending Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act: A Case Report on Sears, Roebuck and Co., Mental & Physical Disability Law Reporter, 20, 278-86. Blanck, P.D. (1996). Communicating the Americans with Disabilities Act, Transcending Compliance: 1996 Follow-Up Report on Sears, Roebuck & Co., The Annenberg Washington Program, Washington, D.C. Blanck, P.D. (1997). The Economics of the Employment Provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act: Part I-Workplace Accommodations, DePaul Law Review, 46, 877-914. Blanck, P.D. (1998). The Americans with Disabilities Act and the Emerging Workforce (American Association on Mental Retardation, Washington, D.C.). Blanck, P.D. (Ed.) (2000a, forthcoming). Employment, Disability, and the Americans with Disabilities Act: Issues in Law, Public Policy, and Research, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, Ill. Blanck, P.D. (2000b). High School/High Tech: A Study of the Emerging Workforce of Persons with Disabilities, Working Paper in Progress. Blanck, P.D. (2000c, forthcoming). Civil War Pensions, Civil Rights, and the ADA, ADA Symposium Presentation, University of Alabama, School of Law. Blanck, P.D., Bellack, A.S., Rosnow, R.L., Rotheram-Borus, M.J., & Schooler, N.R. (1992). Scientific Rewards and Conflicts of Ethical Choices in Human Subjects Research, American Psychologist, 47, 959-65. Blanck, P.D. & Schmeling, J. (2000, forthcoming). Self-Employment and Entrepreneurial Activity of People with Disabilities: A Case Study of Iowa's Entrepreneurs with Disabilities Program, Iowa Law Review, 85, xxx-xxx. Blanck, P.D. & Steele, P. (1998). The Emerging Role of the Staffing Industry in the Employment of Persons with Disabilities: A Case Report on Manpower Inc., The University of Iowa Law, Health Policy, and Disability Center, Iowa City, Iowa. Collignon, F.C. (1997). Is the ADA Successful? Indicators for Tracking Gains, Annals, AAPSS 549, 129-47. Cook, J.A. & Burke, J. (2000). Researching the Work Environment: Exploring New Paradigms. (This volume). Dole, B. (1994). Are We Keeping America's Promises to People with Disabilities?--Commentary on Blanck, Iowa Law Review, 79, 927-34. Equal Opportunity for Individuals With Disabilities (1991). Federal Register, 56, 8578, 8579. Futurework: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century (1999). To view the report on-line, go to Ferguson, P. (2000). Examining the Complex Construct of Disability. (This volume). Hahn, H. (1993). Equality and the Environment: The Interpretation of 'Reasonable Accommodations" in the Americans with Disabilities Act, J. Rehab. Admin., 17, 101, 103. Hahn, H. (2000). Factors Contributing to the Evolution of the New Paradigm. (This volume). Harkin, T. (1994). The Americans with Disabilities Act: Four Years Later-Commentary on Blanck, Iowa Law Review, 79, 935-39. Mathiowetz, N. (2000). The New Paradigm on Disability: Measurement Issues for General Population Surveys. (This volume). Mertens, D. & Aranda, M. Researching Disability and Diversity. (This volume). Morris, M., Blanck, P.D., Silverstein, R., Jensen, A., & Van Horn, C. (1999). Project Overview of the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Workforce Investment and Employment Policy for Persons with Disabilities, Community Options Working Papers, Washington, D.C. National Organization on Disability, The 1998 N.O.D./Harris Survey of Americans with Disabilities (1998). Newell, A. (2000). User Centered Design and Disability. (This volume). Newell, A., Campbell, M.L., & Seekins, T. (2000). Participatory Action Research as an Overarching Premise. (This volume). Oi, W.Y. (1996). Employment and Benefits for People with Diverse Disabilities, in Disability, Work and Cash Benefits 103, 103 (Jerry L. Mashaw et al. eds.). The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Title I: Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Program, P.L. 104-193. Presidential Task Force, Re-Charting the Course: First Report of the Presidential Task Force on Employment of Adults with Disabilities (1998). To view the report on-line, go to http://www.dol.gov/dol/_sec/public/programs/ptfead/rechart/sat5PTFEADfinalwp.htm. Rosenthal, R. & Blanck, P.D. (1993). Science and Ethics in Conducting, Analyzing, and reporting Social Science Research: Implications for Social Scientists, Judges, and Lawyers, Indiana Law Journal, 68, 1209-28. Rosenthal, R. & Rosnow, R.L. (1975). The Volunteer Subject 119-20. Taylor, P.B. (Dec. 16, 1999). Memorandum to Congressman Charles Canady, re: Hearing Proposal Regarding the Application of the Americans with Disabilities Act's Accessibility Requirements to Private Internet Web Sites and Services. The Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999, P.L. 106-170. Webb, E.J., Campbell, D.T., Schwartz, R.D., & Sechrest, L. (1966). Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Research in the Social Sciences 10-11. Workforce Investment Act of 1998, P.L. 105-220. Blanck, Page -